Direct and Indirect
DIRECT SPEECH
Saying exactly what someone has said is called direct speech (sometimes called quoted speech)
Here what a person says appears within quotation marks ("...") and should be word for word.
For example:
She said, "Today's lesson is on presentations."
or
"Today's lesson is on presentations," she said.
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INDIRECT SPEECH
Indirect speech (sometimes called reported speech), doesn't use quotation marks to enclose what the person said and it doesn't have to be word for word.
When reporting speech the tense usually changes. This is because when we use reported speech, we are usually talking about a time in the past (because obviously the person who spoke originally spoke in the past). The verbs therefore usually have to be in the past too.
For example:
Direct speech Indirect speech
"I'm going to the cinema", he said. He said he was going to the cinema.
Kamis, 24 Februari 2011
reported speech
REPORTED SPEECH
Statements
1) If the sentence starts in the present, there is no backshift of tenses in Reported speech.
Example: Susan: "I work in an office." Susan says that she works in an office.
2) If the sentence starts in the past, there is often backshift of tenses in Reported speech. (see: Note)
Example: Susan: "I work in an office." Susan said that she worked in an office.
Backshift of tenses
from to
Simple Present Simple Past
Simple Past Past Perfect
Present Perfect
Past Perfect
will would
Progressive forms
am/are/is was/were
was/were had been
has been
had been
Backshift of tenses
from to
Peter: "I work in the garden." Peter said that he worked in the garden.
Peter: "I worked in the garden." Peter said that he had worked in the garden.
Peter: "I have worked in the garden."
Peter: "I had worked in the garden."
Peter: "I will work in the garden." Peter said that he would work in the garden.
Peter: "I can work in the garden." Peter said that he could work in the garden.
Peter: "I may work in the garden." Peter said that he might work in the garden.
Peter: "I would work in the garden."
(could, might, should, ought to) Peter said that he would work in the garden.
(could, might, should, ought to)
Progressive forms
Peter: "I'm working in the garden." Peter said that he was working in the garden.
Peter: "I was working in the garden." Peter said that he had been working in the garden.
Peter: "I have been working in the garden."
Peter: "I had been working in the garden."
If the sentence contains an expression of time, you must change it as well.
Peter: "I worked in the garden yesterday."
Peter said that he had worked in the garden the day before.
Shifting of expressions of time
this (evening) that (evening)
today/this day that day
these (days) those (days)
now then
(a week) ago (a week) before
last weekend the weekend before / the previous weekend
here there
next (week) the following (week)
tomorrow the next/following day
Note:
In some cases the backshift of tenses is not necessary, e.g. when statements are still true.
John: "My brother is at Leipzig university."
John said that his brother was at Leipzig university. or
John said that his brother is at Leipzig university.
or
Mandy: "The sun rises in the East."
Mandy said that the sun rose in the East. or
Mandy said that the sun rises in the East.
Statements
1) If the sentence starts in the present, there is no backshift of tenses in Reported speech.
Example: Susan: "I work in an office." Susan says that she works in an office.
2) If the sentence starts in the past, there is often backshift of tenses in Reported speech. (see: Note)
Example: Susan: "I work in an office." Susan said that she worked in an office.
Backshift of tenses
from to
Simple Present Simple Past
Simple Past Past Perfect
Present Perfect
Past Perfect
will would
Progressive forms
am/are/is was/were
was/were had been
has been
had been
Backshift of tenses
from to
Peter: "I work in the garden." Peter said that he worked in the garden.
Peter: "I worked in the garden." Peter said that he had worked in the garden.
Peter: "I have worked in the garden."
Peter: "I had worked in the garden."
Peter: "I will work in the garden." Peter said that he would work in the garden.
Peter: "I can work in the garden." Peter said that he could work in the garden.
Peter: "I may work in the garden." Peter said that he might work in the garden.
Peter: "I would work in the garden."
(could, might, should, ought to) Peter said that he would work in the garden.
(could, might, should, ought to)
Progressive forms
Peter: "I'm working in the garden." Peter said that he was working in the garden.
Peter: "I was working in the garden." Peter said that he had been working in the garden.
Peter: "I have been working in the garden."
Peter: "I had been working in the garden."
If the sentence contains an expression of time, you must change it as well.
Peter: "I worked in the garden yesterday."
Peter said that he had worked in the garden the day before.
Shifting of expressions of time
this (evening) that (evening)
today/this day that day
these (days) those (days)
now then
(a week) ago (a week) before
last weekend the weekend before / the previous weekend
here there
next (week) the following (week)
tomorrow the next/following day
Note:
In some cases the backshift of tenses is not necessary, e.g. when statements are still true.
John: "My brother is at Leipzig university."
John said that his brother was at Leipzig university. or
John said that his brother is at Leipzig university.
or
Mandy: "The sun rises in the East."
Mandy said that the sun rose in the East. or
Mandy said that the sun rises in the East.
COMMAND AND REQUEST
COMMAND AND REQUEST
Command and request bisa disebut sebagai kalimat perintah(command) dan permintaan(request).
* CIRI DAN CONTOH COMMAND AND REQUEST MENURUT SAYA*
Kalimat command biasanya diiringi dengan kata-kata suruhan diantaranya :
"Kata-kata" suruhan ditambah dengan "lah" dan diakhiri dengan tanda seru(!)
seperti : "Duduklah!" atau "Pergilah!".
Didalam bahasa Inggris, kata "lah" itu tidak ada. Jadi kalau kita hendak menyuruh seseorang berbuat sesuatu, hanya verb saja yang diletakkan di depan kalimat maka dengan sendirinya sudah bertambah arti "lah" dalam kalimat tersebut.
Example :
1. Come here! ( Artinya marilah ke sini! )
2. Try to speak English! ( Artinya cobalah berbicara bahasa Inggris! )
3. Study diligently! (Artinya belajarlah dengan rajin! )
Apabila kalimatnya bukan kata kerja (verb), maka pakailah "be" di depan kalimat karena be itu adalah verb. Tapi be ini tidak ada artinya/terjemahannya.
Example :
1. Be good to her!( Artinya baik-baiklah kepadanya! )
2. Be diligent!( Artinya Rajin-rajinlah! )
3. Be careful! ( Artinya hati-hatilah! )
* Prohibition *
Do not boleh dipendekkan jadi "don't" yang artinya "jangan" kalau dileatkkan di depan kalimat.
Example :
1.Do not come here! Artinya jangan datang kemari!
2.Don't look at it! Artinya jangan lihat itu!
3.Don't forget your lesson! Artinya jangan lupakan pelajaranmu itu!
4.Do not go there! Artinya jangan pergi ke sana!
Jadi jangan pake "good" saja atau "good good". Karena kalimat Command and Request ini tidak ada "verb"-nya, maka "be"-lah yang menjadi wakil "verb".
Example :
1.Don't be lazy! = Jangan malas!
2.Don't be stupid! = Jangan bodoh!
3.Don't be careless = Jangan lalai!
4.Don't be ashamed = Jangan malu!
Akan tetapi kalau sesudah be itu ada kata benda atau nama orang maka arti be itu adalah jadi/menjadi,
Example :
1.Be a teacher! = Jadilah guru!
2.Be a president! = Jadilah presiden!
3.Don't be a corruptor! = Jangan jadi koruptor!
4.Don't be a traitor = Jangan jadi pengkhianat!
5.Be an honest man = Jadi orang jujurlah!
Command and request bisa disebut sebagai kalimat perintah(command) dan permintaan(request).
* CIRI DAN CONTOH COMMAND AND REQUEST MENURUT SAYA*
Kalimat command biasanya diiringi dengan kata-kata suruhan diantaranya :
"Kata-kata" suruhan ditambah dengan "lah" dan diakhiri dengan tanda seru(!)
seperti : "Duduklah!" atau "Pergilah!".
Didalam bahasa Inggris, kata "lah" itu tidak ada. Jadi kalau kita hendak menyuruh seseorang berbuat sesuatu, hanya verb saja yang diletakkan di depan kalimat maka dengan sendirinya sudah bertambah arti "lah" dalam kalimat tersebut.
Example :
1. Come here! ( Artinya marilah ke sini! )
2. Try to speak English! ( Artinya cobalah berbicara bahasa Inggris! )
3. Study diligently! (Artinya belajarlah dengan rajin! )
Apabila kalimatnya bukan kata kerja (verb), maka pakailah "be" di depan kalimat karena be itu adalah verb. Tapi be ini tidak ada artinya/terjemahannya.
Example :
1. Be good to her!( Artinya baik-baiklah kepadanya! )
2. Be diligent!( Artinya Rajin-rajinlah! )
3. Be careful! ( Artinya hati-hatilah! )
* Prohibition *
Do not boleh dipendekkan jadi "don't" yang artinya "jangan" kalau dileatkkan di depan kalimat.
Example :
1.Do not come here! Artinya jangan datang kemari!
2.Don't look at it! Artinya jangan lihat itu!
3.Don't forget your lesson! Artinya jangan lupakan pelajaranmu itu!
4.Do not go there! Artinya jangan pergi ke sana!
Jadi jangan pake "good" saja atau "good good". Karena kalimat Command and Request ini tidak ada "verb"-nya, maka "be"-lah yang menjadi wakil "verb".
Example :
1.Don't be lazy! = Jangan malas!
2.Don't be stupid! = Jangan bodoh!
3.Don't be careless = Jangan lalai!
4.Don't be ashamed = Jangan malu!
Akan tetapi kalau sesudah be itu ada kata benda atau nama orang maka arti be itu adalah jadi/menjadi,
Example :
1.Be a teacher! = Jadilah guru!
2.Be a president! = Jadilah presiden!
3.Don't be a corruptor! = Jangan jadi koruptor!
4.Don't be a traitor = Jangan jadi pengkhianat!
5.Be an honest man = Jadi orang jujurlah!
adverbial clause
ADVERBIAL CLAUSE
pengertian adverbial clause menurut saya adalah Clause (anak kalimat) yang berfungsi sebagai Adverb, yakni menerangkan kata kerja.
Adverbial Clause biasanya di bagi-bagi berdasarkan "arti/maksud" dari Conjunction (kata penghubung yang mendahuluinya).
Jenis-jenis Adverbial Clause yaitu:
1. Clause of Time
Clause yang menunjukkan waktu. Biasanya dibuat dengan menggunakan conjunction (kata penghubung) seperti after, before, no sooner, while, as, dll.
Contoh:
* Shut the door before you go out.
* You may begin when(ever) you are ready.
* While he was walking home, he saw an accident.
* By the time I arrive, Alex will have left.
* No sooner had she entered than he gave an order.
2. Clause of Place
Clause yang menunjukkan tempat. Biasanya dibuat dengan menggunakan conjunction seperti where, nowhere, anywhere, wherever, dll.
Contoh:
* They sat down wherever they could find empty seats
* The guard stood where he was positioned.
* Where there is a will, there is a way.
* Where there is poverty, there we find discontent and unrest.
* Go where you like.
3. Clause of Contrast (or Concession)
Clause yang menunjukkan adanya pertentangan antara dua kejadian atau peristiwa yang saling berhubungan. Biasanya dibuat dengan menggunakan conjunction (kata penghubung) seperti although, though, even though, whereas, even if, in spite of, as the time, dll.
Contoh:
* As the time you were sleeping, we were working hard.
* Mary wanted to stop, whereas I wanted to go on.
* Although it is late, we'll stay a little longer.
* He is very friendly, even if he is a clever student.
4. Clause of Manner
Clause yang menunjukkan cars bagaimana suatu pekerjaan dilakukan atau peristiwa terjadi. Biasanya dibuat dengan menggunakan conjunction (kata penghubung) seperti as, how, like, in that, dll.
Contoh:
* He did as I told him.
* You may finish it how you like.
* They may beat us again, like they did in 1978.
5. Clause of Purpose and Result
Clause yang menunjukkan hubungan maksud/tujuan dan hasil. Biasanya dibuat dengan menggunakan kata penghubung seperti (in order) that, so that, in the hope that, to the end that, lest, in case, dll.
Contoh:
* They went to the movie early (in order) to find the best seats.
* She bought a book so (that) she could learn English
* He is saving his money so that he may take a long vacation.
* I am working night and day in the hope that I can finish this book soon.
6. Clause of Cause and Effect
Clause yang menunjukkan hubungan sebab dan akibat. Ada beberapa pola membentuk Clause jenis ini. Perhatikan baik-baik.
Contoh:
* Ryan ran so fast that he broke the previous speed record.
* It was so cold yesterday that I didn't want to swim.
* The soup tastes so good that everyone will ask for more.
* The student had behaved so badly that he was dismissed from the class.
Contoh:
* The Smiths had so many children that they formed their own baseball team.
* I had so few job offers that it wasn't difficult to select one.
Contoh:
* He has invested so much money in the project that he cannot abandon it now.
* The grass received so little water that it turned brown in the heat.
Contoh:
* It was such a hot day that we decided to stay indoors. ATAU It was so hot a day that we decided to stay indoors.
* It was such an interesting book that he couldn't put it down. ATAU It was so interesting a book that he couldn't put it down.
Contoh:
* She has such exceptional abilities that everyone is jealous of her.
* They are such beautiful pictures that everybody will want one.
* Perry has had such bad luck that he's decided not to gamble.
* This is such difficult homework that I will never finish it.
Di samping itu, untuk mengungkapkan hubungan cause and effect (sebab dan akibat) dapat digunakan pola lain, yaitu:
1. Menggunakan Preposition (kata depan) seperti because of, due to, due to the fact that, dll
Contoh:
* Because of the cold weather, we stayed home. (=We stayed home because of the cold weather)
* Due to the cold weather, we stayed home. (=We stayed home due to the cold weather)
* Due to the fact that the weather was cold, we stayed home. (=We stayed home due to the fact that the weather was cold)
2. Menggunakan kata penghubung (conjunction) seperti because, since, now, that, as, as long as, inasmuch as
Contoh:
* Because he was sleepy, he went to bed.
* Since he's not interested in classical music, he decided not to go to the concert.
* As she had nothing in particular to do, she called up a friend and asked her if she wanted to take in a movie.
* Inasmuch as the two government leaders could not reach an agreement, the possibilities for peace are still remote.
3. Menggunakan transition words seperti therefore, consequently.
Contoh:
* Alex failed the test because he didn't study.
* Alex didn't study. Therefore, he failed the test.
* Alex didn't study. Consequently, he failed the test.
7. Clause of Condition
Clause yang menunjukkan adanya persyaratan antara dua kejadian (peristiwa) yang berhubungan. Biasanya dibuat dengan menggunakan conjunctions seperti if, even if, unless, in the even that, or in even that, in case, provided (that), providing (that), on condition that, if only, suppose (that), supposing (that), dll.
Contoh:
* If I see him, I will invite him to the party tomorrow.
* She would forgive her husband everything, if only he would come back to her.
* Suppose (that) your house burns down, do you have enough insurance to cover such a loss.
* In case a robbery occurs in the hotel, the management must be notified at once.
* The company will agree to arbitration on condition (that) the strike is called off at once.
* We should be able to do the job for you quickly, provided (that) you give us all the necessary information.
pengertian adverbial clause menurut saya adalah Clause (anak kalimat) yang berfungsi sebagai Adverb, yakni menerangkan kata kerja.
Adverbial Clause biasanya di bagi-bagi berdasarkan "arti/maksud" dari Conjunction (kata penghubung yang mendahuluinya).
Jenis-jenis Adverbial Clause yaitu:
1. Clause of Time
Clause yang menunjukkan waktu. Biasanya dibuat dengan menggunakan conjunction (kata penghubung) seperti after, before, no sooner, while, as, dll.
Contoh:
* Shut the door before you go out.
* You may begin when(ever) you are ready.
* While he was walking home, he saw an accident.
* By the time I arrive, Alex will have left.
* No sooner had she entered than he gave an order.
2. Clause of Place
Clause yang menunjukkan tempat. Biasanya dibuat dengan menggunakan conjunction seperti where, nowhere, anywhere, wherever, dll.
Contoh:
* They sat down wherever they could find empty seats
* The guard stood where he was positioned.
* Where there is a will, there is a way.
* Where there is poverty, there we find discontent and unrest.
* Go where you like.
3. Clause of Contrast (or Concession)
Clause yang menunjukkan adanya pertentangan antara dua kejadian atau peristiwa yang saling berhubungan. Biasanya dibuat dengan menggunakan conjunction (kata penghubung) seperti although, though, even though, whereas, even if, in spite of, as the time, dll.
Contoh:
* As the time you were sleeping, we were working hard.
* Mary wanted to stop, whereas I wanted to go on.
* Although it is late, we'll stay a little longer.
* He is very friendly, even if he is a clever student.
4. Clause of Manner
Clause yang menunjukkan cars bagaimana suatu pekerjaan dilakukan atau peristiwa terjadi. Biasanya dibuat dengan menggunakan conjunction (kata penghubung) seperti as, how, like, in that, dll.
Contoh:
* He did as I told him.
* You may finish it how you like.
* They may beat us again, like they did in 1978.
5. Clause of Purpose and Result
Clause yang menunjukkan hubungan maksud/tujuan dan hasil. Biasanya dibuat dengan menggunakan kata penghubung seperti (in order) that, so that, in the hope that, to the end that, lest, in case, dll.
Contoh:
* They went to the movie early (in order) to find the best seats.
* She bought a book so (that) she could learn English
* He is saving his money so that he may take a long vacation.
* I am working night and day in the hope that I can finish this book soon.
6. Clause of Cause and Effect
Clause yang menunjukkan hubungan sebab dan akibat. Ada beberapa pola membentuk Clause jenis ini. Perhatikan baik-baik.
Contoh:
* Ryan ran so fast that he broke the previous speed record.
* It was so cold yesterday that I didn't want to swim.
* The soup tastes so good that everyone will ask for more.
* The student had behaved so badly that he was dismissed from the class.
Contoh:
* The Smiths had so many children that they formed their own baseball team.
* I had so few job offers that it wasn't difficult to select one.
Contoh:
* He has invested so much money in the project that he cannot abandon it now.
* The grass received so little water that it turned brown in the heat.
Contoh:
* It was such a hot day that we decided to stay indoors. ATAU It was so hot a day that we decided to stay indoors.
* It was such an interesting book that he couldn't put it down. ATAU It was so interesting a book that he couldn't put it down.
Contoh:
* She has such exceptional abilities that everyone is jealous of her.
* They are such beautiful pictures that everybody will want one.
* Perry has had such bad luck that he's decided not to gamble.
* This is such difficult homework that I will never finish it.
Di samping itu, untuk mengungkapkan hubungan cause and effect (sebab dan akibat) dapat digunakan pola lain, yaitu:
1. Menggunakan Preposition (kata depan) seperti because of, due to, due to the fact that, dll
Contoh:
* Because of the cold weather, we stayed home. (=We stayed home because of the cold weather)
* Due to the cold weather, we stayed home. (=We stayed home due to the cold weather)
* Due to the fact that the weather was cold, we stayed home. (=We stayed home due to the fact that the weather was cold)
2. Menggunakan kata penghubung (conjunction) seperti because, since, now, that, as, as long as, inasmuch as
Contoh:
* Because he was sleepy, he went to bed.
* Since he's not interested in classical music, he decided not to go to the concert.
* As she had nothing in particular to do, she called up a friend and asked her if she wanted to take in a movie.
* Inasmuch as the two government leaders could not reach an agreement, the possibilities for peace are still remote.
3. Menggunakan transition words seperti therefore, consequently.
Contoh:
* Alex failed the test because he didn't study.
* Alex didn't study. Therefore, he failed the test.
* Alex didn't study. Consequently, he failed the test.
7. Clause of Condition
Clause yang menunjukkan adanya persyaratan antara dua kejadian (peristiwa) yang berhubungan. Biasanya dibuat dengan menggunakan conjunctions seperti if, even if, unless, in the even that, or in even that, in case, provided (that), providing (that), on condition that, if only, suppose (that), supposing (that), dll.
Contoh:
* If I see him, I will invite him to the party tomorrow.
* She would forgive her husband everything, if only he would come back to her.
* Suppose (that) your house burns down, do you have enough insurance to cover such a loss.
* In case a robbery occurs in the hotel, the management must be notified at once.
* The company will agree to arbitration on condition (that) the strike is called off at once.
* We should be able to do the job for you quickly, provided (that) you give us all the necessary information.
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